|
The
college research paper is often the most difficult project of a student's
life. Your college and professional careers depend on your analysis and writing style.
 |
Our
website is not only dedicated to solve your problems but is also
aiming to make you a better writer than you were before you
visited the site. All you have to do is to go through this guide
and use the research tools. You should use the links to get more
information. You are well on your way to a successful A+
paper. |
The Research Process:
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What
is Research?
Research experience is as close to a professional problem-solving activity
as anything in the curriculum.
It
provides exposure to research methodology and opportunity to work closely
with a faculty advisor. It usually requires the use of advanced concepts,
a variety of experimental techniques, and state-of-the-art
instrumentation. Ideally, undergraduate research should focus on a
well-defined project that stands a reasonable chance of completion in the
time available. A literature survey alone is not a satisfactory research
project. Neither is repetition of established procedures.
Research
is genuine exploration of the unknown that leads to new knowledge that
often warrants publication. But whether or not the results of a research
project are publishable, the project should be communicated in the form of
a research report written by the student. It is important to realize that
science depends on precise transmission of facts and ideas. Preparation of
a comprehensive written research report is an essential part of a valid
research experience, and the student should be aware of this requirement
at the outset of the project. Interim reports may also be required,
usually at the termination of the quarter or semester. Sufficient time
should be allowed for satisfactory completion of reports, taking into
account that initial drafts should be critiqued by the faculty advisor and
corrected by the student at each stage.
Guidelines
on how to prepare a professional-style research report are not routinely
available. For this reason, the following information on report writing
and format is provided to be helpful to undergraduate researchers and to
faculty advisors.
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Organize
Your Paper
Most
scientific research reports, irrespective of the field, parallel the
method of scientific reasoning. That is: the problem is defined, a
hypothesis is created, experiments are devised to test the hypothesis,
experiments are conducted, and conclusions are drawn. This framework is
consistent with the following organization of a research report:
· Title
· Abstract
· Introduction
· Experimental Details or Theoretical Analysis Results
· Discussion
· Conclusions and Summary References
Preparing
the Manuscript
The personal computer and word processing have made manuscript preparation
and revision a great deal easier than it used to be. Students should have
the opportunity to use a word processor and have access to graphics
software that allows numerical data to be graphed, chemical structures to
be drawn, and mathematical equations to be represented. These are
essential tools of the technical writer. All manuscripts should routinely
be checked for spelling (programs to check spelling are helpful), and all
manuscripts should be carefully proofread before being submitted. The
faculty advisor should edit preliminary drafts before the report is
presented in final form.
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Preparing
and Using Outlines
Using an outline can help you organize your material and can also help you
discover connections between pieces of information that you weren't aware
of when you first conceived the plan of your paper. It can also make you
aware of material that is not really relevant to the purposes of your
paper or material that you have covered before and should therefore be
removed.
A Working
Outline might be only an informal list of topics and subtopics, which you
are thinking of covering in your paper. Sometimes, however, an instructor
might require that a working outline be submitted at the beginning of your
work; then your instructor might suggest ways in which the work needs to
be further developed or cut back. Your instructor might also see that
you're trying to accomplish too much or too little for the scope of the
assignment he or she has in mind. The working outline can be revised as
you discover new material and get new ideas that ought to go into your
paper. Most word processing programs have outlining features with
automatic formatting that make it easy to create and revise outlines. It
is a good idea to keep copies of old outlines in a computer folder in case
new versions of the outline lead you in false directions that you will
later have to abandon.
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A Final
Outline should enhance the organization and coherence of your research
paper. Instructors sometimes require that a final outline be submitted
along with the final version of your paper. Material that is not relevant
to the purpose of your paper as revealed in your outline should be excised
from the paper; if portions of your outline seem weak in comparison to
others, more research may be required to create a sense of balance in your
argument and presentation.
Outlines
can be organized according to your purposes. Are you attempting to show
the chronology of some historical development, the cause-and-effect
relationship between one phenomenon and another, the process by which
something is accomplished, or the logic of some position? Are you defining
or analyzing something? Comparing or contrasting one thing to another?
Presenting an argument (one side or both)?
In any
case, try to bring related material together under general headings and
arrange sections so they relate logically to each other. An effective
introduction will map out the journey your reader is about to take, and a
satisfactory conclusion will wrap up the sequence of ideas in a nice
package.
A final
outline can be written as a topic outline, in which you use only short
phrases to suggest ideas, or as a sentence outline, in which you use full
sentences (even very brief paragraphs) to show the development of ideas
more fully. If your instructor requires an outline, follow consistently
whichever plan he or she prefers.
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The
Framework
Title
and Title Page
The title should reflect the content and emphasis of the project described
in the report. It should be as short as possible and include essential key
words.
The
author's name (e.g., Mary B. Chung) should follow the title on a separate
line, followed by the author's affiliation (e.g., Department of Chemistry,
Central State College, Central, Arkansas, 67123), the date, and possibly
the origin of the report (e.g., In partial fulfillment of a Senior Thesis
Project under the supervision of Professor Danielle F. Green, June, 1997).
All of the
above could appear on a single cover page. Acknowledgments and a table of
contents can be added as preface pages if desired.
Abstract
The abstract should, in the briefest terms possible, describe the topic,
the scope, the principal findings, and the conclusions. It should be
written last to reflect accurately the content of the report. The length
of abstracts vary, but seldom exceed 200 words.
A primary
objective of an abstract is to communicate to the reader the essence of
the paper. The reader will then be the judge of whether to read the full
report or not. Were the report to appear in the primary literature, the
abstract would serve as a key source of indexing terms and key words to be
used in information retrieval. Author abstracts are often published
verbatim in Chemical Abstracts.
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Introduction
"A good introduction is a clear statement of the problem or project
and why you are studying it." (Dodd, J. S., Ed. The ACS Style Guide;
American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1986.).
The nature
of the problem and why it is of interest should be conveyed in the opening
paragraphs. This section should describe clearly but briefly the
background information on the problem, what has been done before (with
proper literature citations), and the objectives of the current project. A
clear relationship between the current project and the scope and
limitations of earlier work should be made so that the reasons for the
project and the approach used will be understood.
Experimental
Details or Theoretical Analysis
This section should describe what was actually done. It is a succinct
exposition of the laboratory notebook, describing procedures, techniques,
instrumentation, special precautions, and so on. It should be sufficiently
detailed that other experienced researchers would be able to repeat the
work and obtain comparable results.
In
theoretical reports, this section would include sufficient theoretical or
mathematical analysis to enable derivations and numerical results to be
checked. Computer programs from the public domain should be cited. New
computer programs should be described in outline form.
If the
experimental section is lengthy and detailed, as in synthetic work, it can
be placed at the end of the report or as an appendix so that it does not
interrupt the conceptual flow of the report. Its placement will depend on
the nature of the project and the discretion of the writer.
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Results
In this section, relevant data, observations, and findings are summarized.
Tabulation of data, equations, charts, and figures can be used effectively
to present results clearly and concisely. Schemes to show reaction
sequences may be used here or elsewhere in the report.
Discussion
The crux of the report is the analysis and interpretation of the results.
What do the results mean? How do they relate to the objectives of the
project? To what extent have they resolved the problem? Because the
"Results" and "Discussion" sections are interrelated,
they can often be combined as one section.
Conclusions
and Summary
A separate section outlining the main conclusions of the project is
appropriate if conclusions have not already been stated in the
'Discussion' section. Directions for future work are also suitably
expressed here.
A lengthy
report, or one in which the findings are complex, usually benefits from a
paragraph summarizing the main features of the report ¾ the objectives,
the findings, and the conclusions. The last paragraph of text in
manuscripts prepared for publication is customarily dedicated to
acknowledgments. However, there is no rule about this, and research
reports or senior theses frequently place acknowledgments following the
title page.
References
Literature references should be collated at the end of the report and
cited in one of the formats described in The ACS Style Guide or standard
journals. Do not mix formats. All references should be checked against the
original literature.
Helpful
Tips: MLA
Style Guide | APA
Style Guide | Grammar
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Six Steps to 
Step 1: Preparing for the
assignment and getting ready to choose a topic.
Step 2: Discovering and choosing a
topic for your research.
Step 3: Exploring your topic,
finding and forming a focus for your research.
Step 4: Gathering information which
clarifies and supports your focus.
Step 5: Analyzing and organizing
your information and forming a thesis statement.
Step 6: Writing, revising and
finalizing the paper.
Need
help? Get 1-to-1 assistance from your Personal Advisor!
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| Step
1 Goal: |
Preparing for the
assignment and getting ready to choose a topic. |
Feelings: Don't be
surprised if you feel like many people do as they get started--worried
about the amount of work ahead of you and a bit unsure of yourself. You
might even feel a little excitement, anticipating the
project! Or maybe not.
Hey wait a minute! Why
should I care about how I'm feeling during this whole process? There's
an old saying, "Misery loves company." If you know how other
students feel as they go through the research and writing process and
you feel about the same way, you'll know your project is right on track!
Thoughts and Actions: Follow
the steps below to get an idea of things you should be thinking
about and doing, and some of the strategies
which will help. Note the type of information search you should be doing
at this stage.
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1.1 Understand the assignment
Read over the instructions for the
assignment to make sure you fully understand what the instructor has in
mind and on what basis you will be graded. The Roane State Community
College OWL (Online Writing Lab) (Henley, 1996) describes some common
types of research papers as:
- Report
- Sometimes, a teacher will assign topics or give
students a range of topics to choose from and ask that the students
write a research paper on the topic. This type of research paper is
really a form of individual study. The measure of success is how well
the student can conduct research, analyze and organize the information
and communicate it clearly in written form. Frequently, reports
require an oral presentation to the class as well.
-
- Issue Analysis
- A research paper may highlight a particular issue or
problem in a field of study. The paper may focus on analysis of the
issue and its solutions, possibly from both historical and current
perspectives. The posture of the writer is frequently that of a
neutral observer more than an advocate for a particular position. The
success of the paper is often based on how completely and clearly the
writer has identified the key aspects of the issue and their
significance to the field to which they relate.
-
- Advocacy or Persuasion
- A research paper may involve taking a stand on an
issue and defending it against opposing points of view. The student
will research the issues and read others' arguments for and against.
The paper will anticipate and deflect arguments against the position,
while presenting supporting evidence in favor of the position. Success
will depend on how persuasively the paper makes its case and defends
against possible opposition.
See also our links to Common
Types of Papers and Papers
on Special Subjects for articles on the unique aspects of various
types of essays and research papers.
Be sure you understand what kind of a paper you've been
asked to write, since the approach you'd take could be vastly different,
depending on the purpose of the paper and the expectations of your
instructor!
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1.2 Consider the
process you'll use
The paper is your final product,
but a research paper involves an extensive process before
you can generate the product. If you focus too quickly on the end product,
you may miss some of the important research steps and find yourself
writing a paper without enough understanding of the topic to do an A+ job.
Browse over the rest of the steps suggested in this manual to get
an idea of the process and think about how you'll approach each step.
Start a journal or notebook and begin jotting notes about not only
"what" you plan to do but also "how" you plan to do
it.
1.3 Set your
deadlines for each step of the assignment
Ideally, you will have at least four weeks
from the date it's assigned to complete a research paper of 7 or 8 pages (2,000
to 2,500 words). Shorter papers requiring fairly simple research (4
or 5 pages - 1,500 words) may not require four weeks' "lead
time," while a 15 page or longer paper might be a semester-long
project. The page "Scheduling
Your Project" will help you set time deadlines for yourself.
1.4 Think about
possible topics
The word "topic" is used variably
by many teachers of writing and research to mean anything from the very
general "subject matter" to the very specific "thesis
statement." In this manual, the term topic is
broadly defined, while focus means a narrower perspective
on the topic, and thesis statement is the main point of
your paper, which cannot be determined until after research and analysis
is complete. Look over Step
2, Discovering a Topic, and Step
3, Looking for and Forming a Focus for more information about these
distinctions.
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1.5 Info Search -
browse, read, relax
Start by thumbing through the textbooks or
course pack for the class in which your paper was assigned. Browse the
table of contents, chapter headings and subheadings, to get an overview of
the subject matter. Visit your library and browse in the catalog and
reference room to find out what sources are held by the library which may
relate to your class. Browse some of the subject-indexed sources on the
internet with the same purpose. The Info
Search section of this manual will help you learn how and where to
browse.
Your objective in this step is to get a
"bird's eye view" of the general subject matter, to give your
brain some ideas to work on while you're getting ready for the step of
choosing a topic.
1.6 Relate your
prior experience and learning
The process of successful
research and writing involves building on what you know. You don't need to
know a lot about a subject in order to use it as your
topic, but choosing one you're totally unfamiliar with could be a mistake.
It may take so much time and effort to become informed about the subject
that you don't really have time to get into the depth required by your
assignment.
1.7 Jot down your
questions and ideas about possible topics
Use your notebook to starting recording
questions which interest you or ideas for possible topics. If you're
researching a paper for a 20th century American history class, write down
questions you wonder about:
Why did the stock market crash in 1929?
Who was the worst 20th century American President?
Did the Cigarette Smoking Man from X-Files really kill JFK?
You'll end up with a list of ideas and
musings, some of which are obviously ridiculous and not reasonable topics
for your paper, but don't worry about that at this point. Think about
things which interest you and which build upon some experience or
knowledge you have or build upon things you're presently learning in
class.
Also see the links to Reading
Techniques and Journal Writing for tips on how to use a journal to
help you in researching and writing a paper.
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1.8 Brainstorm,
alone and with others
Toss ideas around in your mind. Bounce
ideas off of your classmates, your teacher or (heaven forbid) your
siblings and parents, to get their reactions and ideas. Many times another
person will have a fresh perspective you might not have thought of, or
something they say will trigger an idea for you.
Ready for Step 2
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| Step
2 Goal: |
Discovering and choosing a
topic for your research. |
Feelings: You may feel
confused, adrift in a sea of information. You may be anxious to pick a
topic and "get on with it." Once you've made a choice, you'll
probably feel elated and excited - for a while, at least!
Thoughts and Actions: Follow
the steps below to get an idea of things you should be thinking
about and doing, and some of the strategies
which will help. Note the type of information search you should be doing
at this stage.
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2.1 Info Search - read for
overview of various topics
Use the notes you've made and the thinking
you've done so far to select some areas for general reading. Use the
library's reference room--encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs--to get an
overview of possible topics (even if your instructor has told you that you
can't use an encyclopedia as a reference--that's not important at this
stage). Explore CD-ROM tools in your library, like newspaper and magazine
indexes, searching with key words representing your topic ideas. Explore
the internet by using several of the resources organized by subject. The Info
Search section of this manual will help you learn how and where to
find these resources.
Remember to keep your concept of topic
rather broad at this stage--you can look for a focus later, after you know
something about the topic. Read the article "Narrowing
Your Essay Topic," from the University of Victoria, for some specific examples of broader and narrower topics.
2.2 Continue
thinking and jotting down questions and ideas in your notebook
As you read, ideas and questions may strike
you - write them down, or you'll lose track of them. Look for issues which
interest you, which arouse your curiosity or your passion (no, not that
kind of passion, unless it's a human sexuality course). Consider
the audience for your research paper: what kinds of things have been
discussed in class that seemed to interest the class and the instructor?
What kinds of issues were touched upon but could use further study and
elaboration?
Here is advice from Colgate
University on this process:
Write down all the
ideas that occur to you--the brilliant insights, the stupid questions,
the complaints, the emotions, the reactions, the things you're reminded
of--everything. (Typically these ideas will crowd into your head as you
write out your answers to the prewriting tasks. Instead of pushing them
aside, forgetting them, or telling yourself that they are irrelevant,
write them down. Later you may find relevance to things that at first
seemed immaterial.) (http://www2.colgate.edu/diw/model.html)
Also see the links to Planning
and Starting the Writing Process, especially the Ideas
section and Reading
Techniques and Journal Writing.
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2.3 Info Survey -
what print and electronic resources are available?
When you've narrowed your choices down,
make a quick survey of the research resources which will be available to
you on each potential topic. How much information seems to be available in
your library's catalog? If it's a current topic, is there information in
newspaper and magazine indexes and are those newspapers and magazines held
by your library? Is there much authoritative information on your topic on
the internet? Is the available information slanted to one side of an issue
versus another? How much work will it take to get the information you need
if you choose a particular topic?
2.4 Try different
topics on for "size"
The topic you choose should "fit"
in several important respects: your interests and knowledge, the purpose
of the assignment, the type of paper (report, issue, argument), the length
of the paper. Don't worry too much about having a broad topic at this
point--in Step 3 you'll be looking for a focus to narrow the
topic down to a manageable size for research and writing. Look for topic
ideas at Insider Network or in your library. Ask the reference
librarian if the library has books of suggested topics like 10,000
Ideas for Term Papers, Projects, Reports & Speeches (Lamm,
1995).
Ready for Step 3
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| Step
3 Goal: |
Exploring your topic,
finding and forming a focus for your research. |
Feelings: You're probably
still feeling uncertain, even though you have a topic. As you root around
in your topic, you may have your darkest hour in the whole process,
feeling threatened by the choice of a focus--what if you pick the
"wrong" one? Try to tolerate these feelings. Once you choose a
focus, you should start to feel some optimism and confidence. You may even
have an "Aha!" experience, but don't worry if you don't--there's
not an "Aha!" in every A+ paper.
Thoughts and Actions: Follow
the steps below to get an idea of things you should be thinking
about and doing, and some of the strategies
which will help. Note the type of information search you should be doing
at this stage.
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3.1 Info Search - exploring your
topic
Before you can decide on a focus, you need
to explore your topic, to become informed about the topic, to build on
your knowledge and experience. You'll be locating books, articles, videos,
internet and other resources about your topic and reading to learn!
You're looking for an issue, an aspect, a perspective on which to focus
your research paper.
This is the first step in which you'll
probably be checking books out of the library. Encyclopedias won't be much
help here. You're looking for treatments of your topic which are either
more comprehensive or more specific than an encyclopedic treatment, with
various authors' summaries, analyses and opinions. But, until you've
chosen a focus, you're not really on a mission of gathering
information. If you gather information on the topic as a whole, you'll
waste a lot of time doing it and have way too much to sort through when
you are ready to write your paper. Resist the temptation to
"gather" until you've chosen a focus.
Now you'll be using the library's online
catalog, online indexes and the Web search engines along with the
reference room and the subject-based Web directories. Learn how in the Info
Search section.
3.2 Info Search -
preliminary note taking
As you read, start taking notes of what
you're learning about your topic--concepts, issues, problems, areas where
experts agree or disagree. Keep track of the bibliographic references for
the information you're using, and write down a note or two of what's
contained in the book, article, Website, etc. There's nothing more
frustrating than knowing you read something earlier about
a particular point and not being able to locate it again when you decide
it's something you need.
Find out what kind of citations are
required by your instructor and make sure you're recording what you'll
need to do your bibliography. See links to Citing
Sources.
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3.3 Purposeful
thinking about possible focuses
While you're learning about your topic,
intentionally look for possible focuses in the material. You could spend
enormous amounts of time reading, especially about an interesting topic,
without being any closer to a focus unless you purposefully keep that goal
in your mind while you read.
3.4 Choosing a
focus or combining themes to form a focus
Try your choices of focus on for
"size" as you did your topic. Which ones fit the assignment, the
size, scope and type of the paper? Think about which of your possible
focuses has the best chance for making a successful A+ paper. If you find
several themes within your topic which each are too small to support the
entire paper, can they be combined to form a focus?
If you haven't yet read the linked articles
on
Browse through them to get suggestions for
focusing and narrowing your topic.
Ready for Step 4
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The Writing Process
- Time
Management and Steps for Writing a Paper
(St. Cloud U)
- http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/writeproc.html
- Short summary of a paper's time line and the
steps involved.
- A
Model for Academic Writing (Colgate U)
- http://www2.colgate.edu/diw/model.html
- Good summary of the writing process,
"learning, drafting, revising" but deals with an expository
essay more than a true research paper. Some gems of advice about
thesis statements.
- Where
to Start a Paper (U Richmond)
- http://www.urich.edu/~writing/1stqs.html
- A list of questions to get you started.
- Getting
Started (Princeton U)
- http://webware.princeton.edu/Writing/wc4a.htm
- How to get started on your writing assignment,
freewriting, mapping ideas.
Ideas
- For
those about to write . . .
(George Mason U)
- http://osf1.gmu.edu/~wcenter/handouts/quotes.html
- Some inspirational quotations about the writing
process, as you begin to write.
- Planning:
Thought Starters (Researchpaper.com)
- http://www.researchpaper.com/writing_center/101.html
- "Twenty questions or "thought
starters" which present ways of observing or thinking about your
topic."
- Brainstorming
for Ideas (U Richmond)
- http://www.urich.edu/~writing/brainst.html
- "Brainstorming provides a nearly
guaranteed solution to writer's block. It's actually a very easy
process."
- When
you start to write (Purdue U)
- http://owl.english.purdue.edu/Files/66.html
- Things to think about as you start your writing
project.
- Invention
(Purdue U)
- http://owl.english.purdue.edu/Files/65.html
- Generating ideas and brainstorming.
- The
Essay - Brainstorming (U Victoria)
- http://webserver.maclab.comp.uvic.ca/writersguide/Pages/EssayBrainstorming.html
-
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The Topic
- Analyzing
Your Topic (Texas A&M)
- http://uwc.tamu.edu/handouts/invention.html
- Checklist of things to consider in choosing a
topic.
-
- The
Essay - Narrowing Your Topic (U Victoria)
- http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/EssayNarrowTopics.html
-
- The
Art of Research Questions
(Houston CC)
- http://www.hccs.cc.tx.us/Library/Center/Lobby/Question.html
- This article, written by a librarian, argues
eloquently for the use of a "question" rather than a
"topic" when starting work on a research paper and gives
tips for framing the question to be researched.
Thesis Statement
- The
Essay - Statement Of Your Thesis
(U Victoria)
- http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/EssayThesisStatement.html
-
- Developing
a Thesis Statement (Texas Tech U)
- http://english.ttu.edu/uwc/thesis.html
-
- Thesis
Statement (St. Cloud U)
- http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/thesistatement.html
-
- Developing
a Central Idea or "Thesis"
(Princeton U)
- http://web.princeton.edu/sites/writing/Handouts/DevelopingaCentralIdea.pdf
-
- Thesis
Statements (U Wisconsin-Madison)
- http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ThesisStatements.html
-
- Thesis
Writing (RPI Writing Center)
- http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/thesis.html
- " ...a thesis allows both reader and
writer to find their ways through a labyrinth of ideas by following a
thread of thought. That is, a thesis crystallizes the controlling idea
of an essay and, thus, helps us to keep track of that idea as it
develops through the body of the text."
-
- Thesis
Statements (U Richmond)
- http://writing.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/thesis.html
-
- Introductions
and Thesis Statements (Hamilton
College)
- http://www.hamilton.edu/academics/resource/wc/Intro_Thesis.html
- A short overview of introductions and thesis
statements, along with some examples of each.
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Reading Techniques
- How
To Read University Texts or
Journal Articles (U Victoria)
- http://www.coun.uvic.ca/learn/program/hndouts/Readtxt.html
- Specific advice for reading classroom and
research-type materials.
- Reading
to comprehend and learn (U Victoria)
- http://www.coun.uvic.ca/learn/program/hndouts/psq5r.html
- How to read with learning in mind - the steps
to follow.
- Keeping
a Pre-writing Journal (U Richmond)
- http://www.urich.edu/~writing/prejourn.html
- "Often the hardest part of developing a
thesis and writing an effective paper is simply getting started. To
help yourself formulate and organize ideas you may want to keep a
writing journal."
- Keeping
a Reading Journal (George Mason U)
- http://osf1.gmu.edu/~wcenter/handouts/puller.html
- "But keeping a journal as you read is one
of the best ways of exploring a piece of writing. With this process
you integrate reading and writing, and find that you can interact with
the work more fully."
Overcoming Obstacles
- Coping
with Writing Anxiety (Purdue U)
- http://owl.english.purdue.edu/Files/61.html
-
- Overcoming
Writer's Block (Purdue U)
- http://owl.english.purdue.edu/Files/62.html
-
- Writing
Anxiety (Princeton U)
- http://webware.princeton.edu/Writing/wc4f.htm
-
- Overcoming
Writer's Block (St. Cloud U)
- http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/block.html
Ready for Step 4
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| Step
4 Goal: |
Gathering information which
clarifies and supports
your focus. |
Feelings: Many people feel
interested and challenged at this stage. The agonizing part of choosing what
to research is over and the task of finding the specific
information you need is more like solving a puzzle or going on a treasure
hunt. If any part of this process is going to be fun,
this is the part.
Thoughts and Actions: Follow
the steps below to get an idea of things you should be thinking
about and doing, and some of the strategies
which will help. Note the type of information search you should be doing
at this stage.
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4.1 Info Search - finding,
collecting and recording
This is the step most people think of when
they think of "library research." It's a hunt for information in
any available form (book, periodical, CD, video, internet) which is
pertinent to your chosen focus. Once you know the focus of your research,
there are lots of tools and strategies to help you find and collect the
information you need.
Your information search should be focused
and specific, but pay careful attention to serendipity (finding,
by chance, valuable things you weren't even looking for). Keep
your mind open to continue learning about your focused topic.
Now is the time to carefully record your
sources in the bibliographic format required by your instructor. Every
piece of information you collect should have bibliographic information
written down before you leave the library. See the links to Citing
Sources for information on how and when to use quotation, paraphrase
and summary and how to conform to the required styles of citation in
different fields of study. You should also pay attention to the quality of
the information you find, especially if you're using information you find
on the internet. See the linked articles about Interpretation
and Evaluation of Information.
Now is also the time to learn the details
of using search engines. Many of the sources you will want to use are
online, whether in the library or on the internet. See the Info
Search section and specifically the Skills
for Online Searching article.
4.2 Think about
clarifying or refining your focus
As you gather information about your
focused topic, you may find new information which prompts you to
refine, clarify, extend or narrow your focus. Stay flexible and adjust
your information search to account for the changes, widening or narrowing
your search, or heading down a slightly different path to follow a new
lead.
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4.3 Start
organizing your notes
Start organizing your notes into logical
groups. You may notice a gap in your research, or a more heavy weighting
to one aspect of the subject than what you had intended. Starting to
organize as you gather information can save an extra trip to the library.
It's better to find the gap now instead of the night before your paper is
due (obviously!).
Look through the articles linked under Organizing
Information, which includes taking notes, outlining and organizing by
mapping, cubing, etc.
4.4 Think about
what your thesis statement will be
The thesis statement is the main point of
your paper. The type of thesis statement you'll be making depends a lot on
what type of paper you're writing--a report, an issue analysis, an
advocacy paper or another type. As you gather specific information and
refine your focus, intentionally look for a main point to your findings.
Sometimes, a thesis emerges very obviously from the material, and other
times you may struggle to bring together the parts into a sensible whole.
The tricky part is knowing when to stop gathering
information--when do you have enough, and of the right kind? Seeking a
main point as you research will help you know when you're done.
Read the linked articles on Thesis
statement for guidance.
Ready for Step 5
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| Step
5 Goal: |
Analyzing and organizing
your information and forming a thesis statement. |
Feelings: You may feel
uncertain where to start or overwhelmed by information, but you also
probably see a glimmer of "light at the end of the tunnel" that
encourages you.
Thoughts and Actions: Follow
the steps below to get an idea of things you should be thinking
about and doing, and some of the strategies
which will help. Note the type of information search you should be doing
at this stage.
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5.1 Analyze and organize your
information
The word "analyze" means to break
something down into its parts. A meaningful analysis identifies the parts
and demonstrates how they relate to each other. You may have information
from different sources which examines different aspects of your topic. By
breaking down the information, you may be able to see relationships
between the different sources and form them into a whole concept.
When you're trying to make sense of the
information coming out of your research process, you often have to look at
it from different perspectives and sometimes have to step back and try to
get a "big picture" view. Some ways to do this are to try out
different organization patterns: compare and contrast, advantages and
disadvantages, starting from a narrow premise and building on it, cause
and effect, logical sequence. There are many tools to use in analyzing and
organizing research findings, such as webbing, outlining, cubing,
mapping--see the linked articles on Organizing
Information.
5.2 Construct a
thesis statement and try it on for "size"
Before beginning to write the paper, write
the thesis statement. Boil down the main point of your paper to a single
statement. Hamilton College (Williams
& Reidy) gives this explanation of the thesis statement:
A well-written thesis statement, usually
expressed in one sentence, is the most important sentence in your entire
paper. It should both summarize for your reader the position you will be
arguing and set up the pattern of organization you will use in your
discussion. A thesis sentence is not a statement of accepted fact; it is
the position that needs the proof you will provide in your argument.
Your thesis should reflect the full scope of your argument--no more and
no less; beware of writing a thesis statement that is too broad to be
defended within the scope of your paper.
The article from
which this quote is taken also gives some excellent examples of thesis
statements for papers in various disciplines. See the Hamilton College
article and others in the Links section for Thesis
statement.
Another way to summarize
the nature and function of the thesis statement is that it is a single
sentence, usually in the first paragraph of the paper, which:
-
declares the
position you are taking in your paper,
-
sets up the way you
will organize your discussion, and
-
points to the
conclusion you will draw.
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5.3 Weed out
irrelevant information
Guess what. Now that you have all those
wonderful notes and citations from your research, you're going to have to
get rid of some of them! No matter how profound and interesting the
information is, if it doesn't relate to and support the thesis you've
chosen, don't try to cram it into the paper--just sigh deeply and set it
aside. You'll have an easier time writing if you do this weeding before
you start.
5.4 Info Search -
fill in the gaps
Once you've identified which of your
research notes you'll use, you may see some gaps where you need an
additional support for a point you want to make. Leave enough time in your
writing plan for an extra trip to the library, just in case.
Ready for Step 6
(Final Step)
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| Step
6 Goal: |
Writing, revising and
finalizing the paper. |
Feelings: When your paper
is finished, you may feel satisfaction, or
dissatisfaction, depending on how you feel about the end product. You'll
probably feel a sense of relief and the strong urge to take a nap--go
ahead, you deserve it!
Thoughts and Actions: Follow
the steps below to get an idea of things you should be thinking
about and doing, and some of the strategies
which will help.
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6.1 Think about the assignment,
the audience and the purpose
To prepare for writing, go over once more
the requirements of the assignment to make sure you focus your writing
efforts on what's expected by your instructor. Consider the purpose of the
paper, either as set forth in the assignment, or as stated in your thesis
statement--are you trying to persuade, to inform, to evaluate, to
summarize?
Who is your audience and how will that
affect your paper?
-
What prior knowledge can you assume the
audience has on the topic?
-
What style and tone of writing are
required by the audience and the assignment--informal, scholarly,
first-person reporting, dramatized?
Read the linked articles that discuss Audience
and tone. Also, look at the articles about the structure and purpose
of different kinds of papers--Common
Types of Papers and Papers
on special subjects--to make sure your writing goals are clear to you.
6.2 Prepare an
outline
Try to get a "model" outline for
the type of paper you're writing, or look at examples of good papers to
see how they were organized. The Roane State Community College OWL (Henley,
1996) gives an example of an outline for a paper written to describe a
problem:
- Introduction
- Statement of the Problem
- Thesis Sentence
- Body: Paragraphs 1 and 2
- History of the Problem (Include, perhaps, past
attempts at solutions. Work in sources.)
- Body: Paragraphs 3 and 4
- Extent of the Problem (Who is affected? How bad is
it? Work in sources.)
- Body: Paragraphs 5 and 6
- Repercussions of the Problem (Work in sources.)
- Body: Paragraphs 7 and 8
- Future solutions (not necessarily your own. More
sources.)
- Conclusion
- Summarize your findings
There are a lot more model outlines and instructions for
preparing outlines available in books and at the OWLs.
See the links under Organizing
information for lots of articles on outlining and other ways to
organize your paper.
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6.3 Write the
rough draft -- visit the OWLs
Here's where the Online Writing
Labs excel--there are many dozens of great articles on every
aspect of writing your paper. The Links pages have classified these by
topic so that you can browse easily and pick out articles you want to
read. The entire Links
for Writing section will be helpful, and specifically the sections on:
6.4 Know how to
use your source materials and cite them
There's a nice section on using
sources in the middle of another article entitled in Writing
a General Research Paper from the Roane State Community College OWL (Henley,
1996 A). The section, "What Happens When the Sources Seem
to be Writing My Paper For Me?" describes how to break up
long quotations and how to cite an author multiple times without letting
the author take over your paper, and it links to both the MLA and the APA
style requirements for partial quotations, full quotations, indented
quotations, in-text quotations, and paraphrasing.
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6.5 Have others
read and critique the paper
Read your paper out loud, to yourself. See
if the arguments are coherent, logical and conclusive when read aloud.
Have several experienced people read and critique your paper. If your
school has a writing lab, use the tutors or helpers there as critics. If
your only choice is other students, make sure they're A students!
6.6 Revise and
proofread
See the "Revision
Checklist" from George Mason University. The checklist
asks some general questions to help you step back and take a look at the
overall content and structure of the paper, then drills down to
paragraphs, sentences and words for a closer examination of the writing
style.
Almost all the OWLs
have very large sections on grammar, sentence and paragraph structure,
writing style, proofreading, revising and common errors. Browse some of
the larger OWLs like Purdue
University and University of
Victoria and see the linked articles on Revising
and rewriting.
Congratulations!
You made it
through all the steps to researching and writing an paper.
We hope your
instructor agrees!
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